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Lithium batteries - Overview

There are two main types of lithium batteries : lithium-metal and lithium-ions, which both have different use cases and advantages.

Fig. : LMBs versus LIBs${}^1$

Lithium metal batteries (LMBs)

Advantages of using lithium metal

• Lithium metal posses an ultrahigh theoretical specific capacity (3860 mAh g−1)
• It also has extremely low electrochemical redox potential (−3.040 V VS ESH)
• Pure lithium metal has the highest anode performance beyond graphite (Gr) intercalation chemistry based materials

Disadvantages of LMBS

• There is signifiant morphology change upon plating and stripping
• Therefore LMBs are often single use, so less ecofriendly
• Their applications include pacemakers, and other integrated devices
• Almost no electrolyte can remain thermodynamically stable against metallic Li due to its low redox pot, so fresh lithium spontaneously reacts with many electrolytes upon contact
• This leads to LMBs having inferior cycle life and safety properties to compared to LIBs

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)

Advantages of lithium-ion technology

• LIBs employ intercalation-type anodes, typically graphite, which offer excellent structural reversibility with minimal volume change during cycling
• They provide a high operating voltage window, enabling competitive volumetric and gravimetric (per weight) energy densities at the cell level
• The chemistry is significantly more stable than lithium metal, allowing LIBs to achieve long cycle lifetimes, often exceeding several thousand cycles under optimised conditions
• A wide variety of cathode materials - such as NMC, NCA, LFP and LCO - allows tuning of energy density, power capability, safety and cost, making LIBs highly versatile for consumer electronics, electric vehicles and grid storage
• The presence of a stable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on graphite enables reliable cycling without continuous electrolyte decomposition

Disadvantages

• The theoretical specific capacity of graphite (≈372 mAh g⁻¹) is an order of magnitude lower than that of lithium metal, limiting theoretical energy density improvements
• LIBs rely on flammable organic carbonate electrolytes, which introduce safety risks under thermal runaway or mechanical stress
• Intercalation kinetics can constrain fast-charging performance and may lead to lithium plating at high current densities or low temperatures
• The manufacturing process is relatively complex, requiring binders, conductive additives and precise formation procedures to achieve stable SEI formation
• Ageing mechanisms including SEI thickening, loss of active lithium and cathode degradation, and gradually reduce capacity and increase internal resistance over time

(1) Image extracted from Red-Away tech, How Do Solid-State Batteries Compare to Lithium-Ion Batteries?